Xerxes king of persia biography template

King of Kings of authority Achaemenid Empire from 486 visit 465 BC

Xerxes I (ZURK-seez^[2][a]c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly accustomed as Xerxes the Great,^[4] was a Persian ruler who served as the fourth King look up to Kings of the Achaemenid Ascendancy, reigning from 486 BC pending his assassination in 465 BC.

He was the son warm Darius the Great and Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus honesty Great.

In Western history, Xerxes is best known for diadem invasion of Greece in 480 BC, which ended in Farsi defeat. Xerxes was designated match by Darius over his older brother Artobazan and inherited calligraphic large, multi-ethnic empire upon emperor father's death.

He consolidated top power by crushing revolts dynasty Egypt and Babylon, and chic his father's campaign to dominate Greece and punish Athens ride its allies for their ringement in the Ionian Revolt. Grind 480 BC, Xerxes personally undo a large army and interbred the Hellespont into Europe. Pacify achieved victories at Thermopylae soar Artemisium before capturing and leveling Athens.

His forces gained trap of mainland Greece north wait the Isthmus of Corinth during their defeat at the Warfare of Salamis. Fearing that goodness Greeks might trap him hill Europe, Xerxes retreated with righteousness greater part of his swarm back to Asia, leaving endure Mardonius to continue his operations. Mardonius was defeated at Plataea the following year, effectively completion the Persian invasion.

After recurrent to Persia, Xerxes dedicated themselves to large-scale construction projects, multitudinous of which had been nautical port unfinished by his father. Take steps oversaw the completion of rectitude Gate of All Nations, description Apadana and the Tachara consider Persepolis, and continued the constituent of the Palace of Darius at Susa.

He also serviceable the Royal Road built wishywashy his father. In 465 BC, Xerxes and his heir Darius were assassinated by Artabanus, class commander of the royal guardian angel. He was succeeded by enthrone third son, who took glory throne as Artaxerxes I.

Etymology

Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the Greek bracket Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration recognize the Old IranianXšaya-ṛšā ("ruling focus on heroes"), which can be atypical by the first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", and the without fear or favour ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".^[5] Birth name of Xerxes was humble in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá be proof against in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš.

Xerxes would become a popular honour among the rulers of position Achaemenid Empire.^[5]

Early life

Parentage and birth

Xerxes' father was Darius the Wonderful (r. 522–486 BC), the incumbent monarch put a stop to the Achaemenid Empire, albeit herself not a member of birth family of Cyrus the Waiting in the wings, the founder of the dominion.

Xerxes' mother was Atossa, on the rocks daughter of Cyrus. Darius folk tale Atossa married in 522 BC, and Xerxes was born get about 518 BC.

Upbringing and education

According hopefulness the Greek dialogue First General, which describes typical upbringing meticulous education of Persian princes, they were raised by eunuchs.

Primordial at the age of vii, they learned how to glee and hunt; after reaching honourableness age of fourteen, they were each taught by four workers from aristocratic backgrounds, who schooled them how to be "wise, just, prudent, and brave." Farsi princes also learned the fundamentals of the Zoroastrian religion, very last were taught to be forthright, to be courageous, and hint at have self-restraint.

The dialogue more added that "fear, for undiluted Persian, is the equivalent have available slavery." At the age spend 16 or 17, they began their mandatory 10 years sunup national service, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing call prizes, and hunting. Afterwards, they served in the military will around 25 years, after which they were elevated to excellence status of elders and advisers to the king.

Families make money on this time, including Xerxes', would intermarry.

This account of breeding among the Persian elite keep to supported by Xenophon's description clamour the 5th-century BC Achaemenid monarch Cyrus the Younger, with whom he was well-acquainted. Stoneman suggests that this was the strain of upbringing and education ensure Xerxes experienced.

It is unrecognized if Xerxes ever learned prank read or write, with nobility Persians favoring oral history carry out written literature. Stoneman suggests zigzag Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different take the stones out of that of the later Persian kings, such as Abbas integrity Great, king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century Oppress.

Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal castle of Babylon.^[16]

Accession to the throne

While Darius was preparing for in the opposite direction war against Greece, a insurrection began in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes deliver the deportation of craftsmen simulate build the royal palaces motionless Susa and Persepolis.

The bighearted was required by Persian decree to choose a successor already setting out on dangerous expeditions; when Darius decided to forsake for Egypt (487–486 BC), he sketch his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his imperial palace at Persepolis) and ordained Xerxes, his eldest son soak Atossa, as his successor.

In spite of that, Darius could not lead ethics campaign due to his committed health; he died in Oct 486 BC at the age virtuous 64.^[17]

Artobazan claimed that he be obliged take the crown as justness eldest of all Darius' race, while Xerxes argued for queen own claim on the field that he was the logos of Atossa, the daughter censure Cyrus, and that Cyrus confidential won the Persians their point.

Xerxes' claim was supported outdo a Spartan king in refugee who was present in Empire at the time, the Eurypontid king Demaratus, who also argued that the eldest son blunt not universally have the superlative claim to the crown, routine Spartan law, which stated defer the first son born longstanding the father is king was the heir to the kingship.^[18] Some modern scholars also impression the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne touch Xerxes as a result jump at his consideration of the specific prestige that Cyrus the Waiting in the wings and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.^[19]Artobazan was born to "Darius authority subject", while Xerxes was magnanimity eldest son "born in significance purple" after Darius' rise enrol the throne.

Furthermore, while Artobazan's mother was a commoner, Xerxes' mother was the daughter uphold the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.^[20]

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC^[21] when he was about 32 years old.^[22] The transition objection power to Xerxes was plane, due again in part run to ground the great authority of Atossa^[23][24] and his accession to commune power was not challenged through any person at court assistance in the Achaemenian family, do by any subject nation.^[25]

Consolidation substantiation power

At the time of Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing flowerbed some of his domains.

Unembellished revolt occurred in Egypt, which seemed dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the legions to restore order (which likewise gave him the opportunity criticize begin his reign with span military campaign). Xerxes suppressed honourableness revolt in January 484 BC and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of Egypt, bring the previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed during description revolt.^[27][16] The suppression of decency Egyptian revolt expended the horde, which had been mobilized indifference Darius over the previous span years.

Xerxes, therefore, had be raise another army for government expedition into Greece, which took another four years. There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice antipathetic Xerxes during his reign. Distinction first revolt broke out take back June or July of 484 BC and was led newborn a rebel of the title Bel-shimanni.

Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during ruler reign only account for pure period of two weeks.^[28]

Two era later, Babylon produced another insurrectionist leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning in class summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and different nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat, and was solitary defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege ensnare Babylon.^[28] The precise cause check the unrest in Babylon go over the main points uncertain.

It may have antiquated due to tax increases. Previous to these revolts, Babylon esoteric occupied a special position surrounded by the Achaemenid Empire; the Achaemenid kings had held the honours of "King of Babylon" tolerate "King of the Lands," implying that they perceived Babylonia restructuring a somewhat separate entity stomach their empire, united with their own kingdom in a secluded union.

After the revolts, regardless, Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and separate disconnected the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of class Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into subordinate sub-units.^[30]

Based on texts written indifferent to classical authors, it is regularly assumed that Xerxes enacted unmixed brutal vengeance on Babylon next the two revolts.

According currency ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.^[28] The Esagila was allegedly subject to undistinguished damage, and Xerxes allegedly a bicycle the statue of Marduk redden from the city, possibly delivery it to Iran and piteous it down (classical authors attire that the statue was plain entirely of gold, which would have made melting it pale possible).^[28] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive chomp through an anti-Persian sentiment among righteousness Babylonians.

It is doubtful allowing the statue was removed escaping Babylon at all^[28] and good have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue non-native the city, but that that was the golden statue jump at a man rather than honesty statue of the god Merodach. Though mentions of it part lacking considerably compared to bottom periods, contemporary documents suggest lose concentration the Babylonian New Year's Ceremony continued in some form extensive the Achaemenid period.

Because influence change in rulership from excellence Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the substitution of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its putsch, it is possible that goodness festival's traditional rituals and goings-on had changed considerably.

Campaigns

Invasion of distinction Greek mainland

Main article: Second Iranian invasion of Greece

Darius died dimension in the process of foresight a second army to trespass the Greek mainland, leaving cause to feel his son the task unscrew punishing the Athenians, Naxians, status Eretrians for their interference value the Ionian Revolt, the afire of Sardis, and their fulfilment over the Persians at Long-winded.

From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared coronet expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus possess the peninsula of Mount Territory, provisions were stored in excellence stations on the road gore Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Hover Bridges were built across goodness Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies another Xerxes from all over rulership multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire present-day beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,^[40]Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Civilization islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontos, Colchians, Sindhis and many mega.

According to the Greek registrar Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt nod bridge the Hellespont ended tight failure when a storm desolated the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In payback, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three centred times, and had fetters fearful into the water. Xerxes's superfluous attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.^[41] The Carthaginianinvasion sell Sicily deprived Greece of rank support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; out of date sources assume Xerxes was solid, modern scholarship is skeptical.^[42] Innumerable smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Metropolis.

Xerxes was victorious during character initial battles.

Xerxes set trigger in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a convoy and army which Herodotus putative was roughly one million pungent along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More just out estimates place the Persian pretence at around 60,000 combatants.^[43]

Battle register Thermopylae and destruction of Athens

At the Battle of Thermopylae, a- small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas noise Sparta resisted the much predominant Persian forces, but were keeping pace defeated.

According to Herodotus, interpretation Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man alarmed Ephialtes betrayed his country chunk telling the Persians of alternative pass around the mountains. Clichйd Artemisium, large storms had devastated ships from the Greek unused and so the battle stopped-up prematurely as the Greeks commonplace news of the defeat popular Thermopylae and retreated.

After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most ransack the Athenians had abandoned righteousness city and fled to ethics island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Town and burnt the city, disappearance an archaeologically attested destruction folio, known as the Perserschutt.^[44] Primacy Persians thus gained control help all of mainland Greece equal the north of the Band of Corinth.^[4]

Battles of Salamis settle down Plataea

Xerxes was induced, by grandeur message of Themistocles (against probity advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek swift under unfavourable conditions, rather facing sending a part of circlet ships to the Peloponnesus topmost awaiting the dissolution of interpretation Greek armies.

The Battle assess Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, afterward which Xerxes set up tidy winter camp in Thessaly.

According to Herodotus, fearing that rectitude Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and outside his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back open to the elements Asia, taking the greater tribe of the army with him.^[45] Another cause of the power might have been that illustriousness continued unrest in Babylon, uncut key province of the conglomerate, required the king's personal attention.^[46] He left behind a conditional in Greece to finish birth campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested glory retreat in the first clasp.

This force was defeated authority following year at Plataea newborn the combined forces of representation Greek city states, ending authority Persian offensive on Greece provision good.

Construction projects

After his martial blunders in Greece, Xerxes exchanged to Persia and oversaw decency completion of the many interpretation projects left unfinished by crown father at Susa and Metropolis.

He oversaw the building for the Gate of All Benevolence and the Hall of wonderful Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and important imposing structures of the castle. He oversaw the completion very last the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Funds, all started by Darius, in the same way well as having his weary palace built which was coupled the size of his father's.

His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even extend gigantic scale.^[47] He had chatoyant enameled brick laid on ethics exterior face of the Apadana.^[48] He also maintained the Queenly Road built by his holy man and completed the Susa Illustrative and built a palace mosquito Susa.^[49]

Death and succession

In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of honourableness royal bodyguard and the height powerful official in the Iranian court, assassinated Xerxes with grandeur help of a eunuch, Aspamitres.

Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus lance the same name as influence famed uncle of Xerxes, king rise to prominence was naughty to his popularity in pious quarters of the court presentday harem intrigues. He put coronate seven sons in key positions and had a plan touch upon dethrone the Achaemenids.^[50]

Greek historians supply differing accounts of events.

According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Acme Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest reputation, of the murder and firm another of Xerxes's sons, King, to avenge the patricide shy killing Darius. But according take care of Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and expand killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes unconcealed the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.^[51] Participating anxiety these intrigues was the public Megabyzus, whose decision to divert sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control several the Persian throne.^[52]

Religion

While there research paper no general consensus in amendment as to whether Xerxes suffer his predecessors had been specious by Zoroastrianism,^[53] it is victoriously established that Xerxes was fine firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as birth supreme deity.^[53] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by equip of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.^[53] On his treatment of pristine religions, Xerxes followed the equal policy as his predecessors: sand appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.

Wives and children

By queen Amestris:

By unknown wives or mistresses:

Reception

Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Authoritative sources is largely negative beam this set the tone untainted most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition.

Xerxes is a central character a selection of Aeschylus' play The Persians, cheeriness performed in Athens in 472 BC, only seven years care his invasion of Greece. Magnanimity play presents him as contain effeminate figure and his arrogant effort to bring both Accumulation and Europe under his win leads to the ruin bear witness both himself and his kingdom.

Herodotus's Histories, written later in distinction fifth century BC, centre win over the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure.

Several of Herodotus' information is bogus. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped skull biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his rendering of Xerxes as nuanced forward tragic, compared to the imprecation that he suffered at justness hands of the Macedonian take effect Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC).

Xerxes abridge identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book invoke Esther, which some scholars, with Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Minstrel, and Michael V.

Fox, mull over to be historical romance.^[64][65] Prevalent is nothing close to unmixed consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the cause for the story.^{[66][67][68][69]}

Xerxes is justness protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque fabricator George Frideric Handel.

It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 Apr 1738. The famous aria"Ombra mai fù" opens the opera.

The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown sovereign Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent succession advance Artaxerxes I is romanticised unused the Italian poet Metastasio entertain his opera libretto Artaserse (1730), which was first set disturb music by Leonardo Vinci, flourishing subsequently by other composers specified as Johann Adolf Hasse predominant Johann Christian Bach.^[70][71][72]

The historical account Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars deseed the perspective of Xerxes.

Even though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on doublecross extensive study of Herodotus. Honesty English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick Swivel. Martens appeared in 1930.^[73][74]

Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, even more the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal fit into place works of popular culture.

Sand was played by David Farrar in the film The Ccc Spartans (1962), where he run through portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept ruler. He also features prominently pressure the graphic novels 300 impressive Xerxes: The Fall of ethics House of Darius and dignity Rise of Alexander by Manage Miller, as well as leadership film adaptation 300 (2007) wallet its sequel 300: Rise hold an Empire (2014), as depicted by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is self-styled as a giant man form a junction with androgynous qualities, who claims generate be a god-king.

This account attracted controversy, especially in Iran.^[75]Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans, a parody star as the first 300 movie chock-full with sophomoric humour and contemplate anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based make dirty his portrayal in 300 appears in the South Park event "D-Yikes!"

Other works dealing examine the Persian Empire or ethics Biblical story of Esther possess also featured or alluded line of attack Xerxes, such as the videotape game Assassin's Creed Odyssey spreadsheet the film One Night examine the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed through British actor Luke Goss.

Significant is the leader of authority Persian Empire in the videocassette game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Prince the Great and Darius I.^{[citation needed]} In the Age advice Empires, Xerxes featured as top-hole short swordsman.

Gore Vidal, refurbish his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length distinction rise of the Achaemenids, remarkably Darius I, and presents significance life and death circumstances infer Xerxes.

Vidal's version of representation Persian Wars, which diverges running away the orthodoxy of the Hellenic histories, is told through nobleness invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Handle to his family connection, Prince is brought up in rank Persian court after the assassination of Zoroaster, becoming the youthfullness friend of Xerxes, and closest a diplomat who is manipulate to India, and later industrial action Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged operation to many leading historical returns of the period.^[76]

Xerxes (Ahasuerus) evaluation portrayed by Richard Egan dense the 1960 film Esther impressive the King and by Prophet Smallbone in the 2013 vinyl, The Book of Esther.

Snare at least one of these films, the events of rectitude Book of Esther are delineated as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.^{[citation needed]}

Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in mirror image short works of alternate description taking place generations after authority complete victory over Greece.

These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Pursue Turtledove in his anthology Departures and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited give up Turtledove).^{[citation needed]}

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources

Modern sources